Scalaz（19）－ Monad： \/ - Monad 版本的 Either
版本 19 Monad Scalaz either
2023-09-14 08:57:17 时间
scala标准库提供了一个Either类型，它可以说是Option的升级版。与Option相同，Either也有两种状态：Left和Right，分别对应Option的None和Some，不同的是Left可以返回一个值。我们通常用这个值来表述异常信息。scalaz也提供了自己版本的Either，并用\/来分辨表示，以及两种状态-\/和\/-。我想scalaz特别提供\/是有原因的：\/不单是一种类型，它是一种type class。更重要的是\/是一种Monad，具备了函数组合能力（composibility）。如此能够方便把Either功能整合到FP编程中去。我们先看看\/的定义：scalaz/Either.scala
sealed abstract class \/[+A, +B] extends Product with Serializable {
def isLeft: Boolean =
this match {
case -\/(_) = true
case \/-(_) = false
/** Return `true` if this disjunction is right. */
def isRight: Boolean =
this match {
case -\/(_) = false
case \/-(_) = true
/** Return the right value of this disjunction or the given default if left. Alias for `|` */
def getOrElse[BB : B](x: = BB): BB =
this match {
case -\/(_) = x
case \/-(b) = b
/** Return the right value of this disjunction or the given default if left. Alias for `getOrElse` */
def |[BB : B](x: = BB): BB =
getOrElse(x)
/** Return the right value of this disjunction or run the given function on the left. */
def valueOr[BB : B](x: A = BB): BB =
this match {
case -\/(a) = x(a)
case \/-(b) = b
/** Return this if it is a right, otherwise, return the given value. Alias for `|||` */
def orElse[AA : A, BB : B](x: = AA \/ BB): AA \/ BB =
this match {
case -\/(_) = x
case \/-(_) = this
/** Return this if it is a right, otherwise, return the given value. Alias for `orElse` */
def |||[AA : A, BB : B](x: = AA \/ BB): AA \/ BB =
orElse(x)
...
与Option相同：\/也提供了函数来获取运算值（Right[A]）,如getOrElse。那么如何获取异常信息呢？可以用swap后再用getOrElse:
/** Flip the left/right values in this disjunction. Alias for `unary_~` */
def swap: (B \/ A) =
this match {
case -\/(a) = \/-(a)
case \/-(b) = -\/(b)
/** Flip the left/right values in this disjunction. Alias for `swap` */
def unary_~ : (B \/ A) =
swap
"ah, error!".left[Int].getOrElse("no error") // res2: Any = no error
"ah, error!".left[Int].swap.getOrElse("no error") // res3: String = ah, error!
(~"ah, error!".left[Int]).getOrElse("no error") // res4: String = ah, error!
与Option一样，\/也有两种状态：
/** A left disjunction * Often used to represent the failure case of a result final case class -\/[+A](a: A) extends (A \/ Nothing) /** A right disjunction * Often used to represent the success case of a result final case class \/-[+B](b: B) extends (Nothing \/ B)
\/实现了map和flatMap：
/** Map on the right of this disjunction. */
def map[D](g: B = D): (A \/ D) =
this match {
case \/-(a) = \/-(g(a))
case b @ -\/(_) = b
/** Bind through the right of this disjunction. */
def flatMap[AA : A, D](g: B = (AA \/ D)): (AA \/ D) =
this match {
case a @ -\/(_) = a
case \/-(b) = g(b)
}
注意flatMap：如果状态为\/- 则连续运算g(b)，如果状态为-\/ 则立即停止运算返回-\/状态。这与Option功能相当。我们用for-comprehension来证明：
1 val epok = for {
2 a - \/-(3)
3 b - \/-(2)
4 } yield a + b // epok : scalaz.\/[Nothing,Int] = \/-(5)
5 val epno = for {
6 a - \/-(3)
7 c - -\/("breaking out...")
8 b - \/-(2)
9 } yield a + b // epno : scalaz.\/[String,Int] = -\/(breaking out...)
10 if (epno.isLeft) (~epno).getOrElse("no error") // res5: Any = breaking out...
\/在for-comprehension里的运算行为与Option一致。不过这个\/写法比较别扭。\/type class为任何类型提供了注入方法left和right: scalaz.syntax/EitherOps.scala
final def left[B]: (A \/ B) =
-\/(self)
final def right[B]: (B \/ A) =
\/-(self)
trait ToEitherOps { //可以为任何类型A注入方法
implicit def ToEitherOps[A](a: A) = new EitherOps(a)
}
现在这个for-comprehension可以这样写：
1 val epok1 = for {
2 a - 3.right
3 b - 2.right
4 } yield a + b // epok1 : scalaz.\/[Nothing,Int] = \/-(5)
5 val epno1 = for {
6 a - 3.right
7 c - "breaking out...".left[Int]
8 b - 2.right
9 } yield a + b // epno1 : scalaz.\/[String,Int] = -\/(breaking out...)
10 if (epno1.isLeft) (~epno1).getOrElse("no error") // res6: Any = breaking out...
这样表述是不是清晰直白多了。
【Python函数式编程】——高阶函数（Higher-order function） 函数是Python内建支持的一种封装，我们通过把大段代码拆成函数，通过一层一层的函数调用，就可以把复杂任务分解成简单的任务，这种分解可以称之为面向过程的程序设计。函数就是面向过程的程序设计的基本单元。